语言学讲解和名词解释

形式交换了位置。（例如，trunk与pack互换了位置。） 6.4.2 Written language 书面语

1. writing process书面语过程: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.

2. According to Hayes and Flower , writing essentially consisits of three inter-related processes: the planning process; the sentence generation process; the revison process.文字处理本质上由三个相互关联的过程组成：计划过程；句子生成过程；修改过程。

3. In general, the processes operate in the order: planning, sentence generation, and revision.这些过程按如下顺序工作：计划，句子生成，修改。

4. Strategic knowledge学习策略知识------which is knowledge of the metods used in constructing a writing plan in order to make it coherhent and well-organized. 它是关于构建写作计划所用方法的知识，使用那些方法可以使写作计划更加连贯，富于组织性。

4. Knowledge-telling strategy知识讲述策略------where they simply wirte down everything they can think of that is relevant to a topic without organizing the information in any way.即不用任何方式组织信息，只是写出所有能想到的与主题相关的东西。 5. Knowledge-transforming strategy 知识转换策略 Exercises:

Here are some more examples of garden path sentence. Can you figure out what the structure of these sentences is ?下面是一些“花园小径”句，请指出其结构。

1. The boat floated downstream sank. The boat/ which was floated downstream / sank.那只顺流而下的船沉了。

2. While Mary was mending the sock fell off her lap. While Mary was mending / the sock fell off her lap. 玛丽正在缝补时，短袜从她膝盖上滑了下来。

3. The daughter of the king‘s son admires himself. (The daughter of the king)‘s son admires himself.国王女儿的儿子崇拜他自己。

4. The florist sent the flowers was pleased. The florist / whom was sent the flowers /was pleased.收到鲜花的种花人非常高兴。

5. The cotton cloting is made from grows in Mississippi. The cotton /which clothing is made from / grows in Mississippi.纺织用棉产于密西西比。

6. They told the boy that the girl met the story. They told the boy / that the girl met/ the story. 他们把故事告诉了女孩遇到的那个男孩。 The examples of cohort theory:

Gray tie------ great eye; a name-----an aim; an ice man-----a nice man; I scream-----ice cream; See Mable----seem able; well fare----welfare lookout------look out ; decade-----Deck Eight Layman------laymen; persistent turn------persist and turn 第七章

chapter 7 language, culture, and socitey语言，文化和社会 7.1 Language and culture语言和文化

7.1.1 How does language relate to culture?语言如何与文化相联系？

1. It has become axiomatic to state there exists a close relationship between language and culture.语言和文化之间有密切的联系。

2. Some change was developed at the start of the 20th century: an anthropological orientation in the study of language was developed both in England and in North American. What characterized this new tradition was its study of language a sociocultural context.一些变化在20世纪的时候出现了，无论是在英国还是在北美，语言研究都开始了人类学转向，这种新传统的特征就是将语言研究置于社会文化的语境之中。

3. Bronislaw Malinowski and Jonh P. Firth can be regarded as the pioneers of this movement in

England.

马林诺夫斯基和弗斯是这一运动的先驱。

Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, and Benjamin Lee Whorf are naturally seen as the representatives of a parallel but independent tradition from North America. 鲍阿斯，萨丕尔和沃尔夫是北美代表。

4. Firth developend his own theory of context of situation, which can be summarised as follows: 弗斯提出了自己的情景语境理论，总结如下：

A. The relevant features of the participants: person, personalities; 参与者的相关特征：人物，人品 (i) The verbal action of the participants 参与者的言语行为

(ii) The non-verbal action of the participants.参与者的非言语行为； B. The relevant objects 有关事物

C. The effects of the verbal action.言语活动的影响

Firth here seemed to suggest the creativity and diversity of linguistic idiosyncrasy in language use. 弗斯在这里指出了语言使用中语言的创造性和多样性。

On the other hand, what Firth emphasized in this theory is quite similar to a more updating sociological axiom in language use, namely, ―who speaks or writes what language or what laguage variety to whom and when and to what end.另一方面，弗斯在该理论中所强调的内容十分接近一个更新的关于语言使用的社会学公理，即“谁在什么时候对谁说了或写了什么语言或使用了什么语言变体，得到了什么结果。”‖ 5. M.A.K.Halliday, whose contributions to sociolinguistics could be better seen from his understanding of language from a socially semiotic or interactional perspective, his functional interpretation of grammar as a resource for meaning potential, and his linguistic model in the study of literature.韩礼德对社会语言学的贡献可以从下列方面更清楚地看出来：他从社会符号或者交互功能方面来解释语言，他将语法解释为具有意义潜势的功能观，以及他在文学研究中建立的语言模型。 6. ethnography of communication 交际民族学 Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学

Sapir-Whorf hypotheses 萨坯尔-沃尔夫假说

7．linguistic relativity语言相对性----: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there‘s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.

.linguistic determinism语言决定论:---- one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,i.e.language determines thought.

On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other, similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as languistic determinism and linguistic relativity-----a view which ―was first expounded by the German ethnologist, Wilhelm von Humboldt‖. 一方面语言可以决定我们的思维方式；另一方面，语言之间的相似性是相对的，结构差异越大，所反映的对世界的认识越不同。因此这个假说也被称作“语言决定论”和“语言相对主义”。实际上，这种看法“最早由德国民族学家洪堡特详加阐释”

8. if we want to do a good job in Crosscultural communication, there are five types of sub-culture we shoud be fully aware of :如果想出色地完成跨文化交际工作，需要充分认识五种次文化形式： Ecological culture 生态文化 Linguistic culture 语言文化 Religious culture宗教文化 Material culture 物质文化 Social culture 社会文化

7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis萨坯尔-沃尔夫假说

1. The stong version of the theory强式说 -----refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasiziing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.指的是这一理论的初始假说，即强调语言在塑造我们的思维方式过程中起到了决定性的作用。

2. The weak version of the theory弱式说-----is modified type of its original theory , suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-culture differences thus produced in our way of thinking are relatives, rather than categorical.是初始假说的修正形式，即认为语

言、文化和思维之间有相关性，但是产生不同思维方式的跨文化差异只是相对的，而不是绝对的。 7.1.3 Case studies 个案研究 1. get your hands dirty means:

You are practicing something 你在做什么事情 You are engaged in doing sth你在从事什么事情 2. have enough dumbbells 愚蠢的家伙

7.1.4 To which extent do we need culture in our linguistic study?文化在语言研究中占什么地位？ Motivation 动因 directionality 方向性

7.1.5 Culture in language teaching classroom语言教学中的文化 7.2 Language and society 语言和社会

7.2.1 How does language relate to society?语言如何和社会联系？

Monistic 一元性 Dualistic view 二元观 autonomous pursuit 自治性 7.2.2 A situalionally and socially variationist perspective 情景和社会变异视角

1. We may expand the scope of our observation by introducing some social factors that are believed to influence our language behavior in a social context. Among these factors, some major ones include : class; gender; age; ethnic identity; education background; occupation and religious belief.我们可以通过引进一些社会因素来扩展我们的详细观察视野。这些因素被认为会在一定的社会背景中影响我们的言语行为，主要包括：阶级；性别；年龄；种族；教育背景；职业；和宗教信仰。 2. phonological variations 语音变体

3. gender difference性别差异:---- a difference in a speech between men and women is‖genden difference‖

4. linguistic sexism语言性别歧视------:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women‘s place in society.

5. variationist linguistics变异语言学:----- a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers‘social starts and phonological variations.

7.2.3 What shoud we know more about sociolinguistics?对于社会语言学我们海应该知道些什么？

1. sociolinguistics of society社会语言学;-----one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.

2. sociolinguistics of language语言学社会学:----- one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context. 7.2.4 What implication can we get from sociolinguistics?从社会语言学中可以得到什么启示？

1. communicative competence交际能力:---- a speaker‘s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,etc.governing the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley‘s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.

2. grmmarians 语法学家 active language users 能动的语言使用者 第八章

Chapter 8 Language in Use语言的使用

Teaching aims: enable the students to have a better understanding of pragmatics and its two

important theories. Focal points: Speech act theory, the theory of conversational implicature言语行为理论，会话含义理论

Teaching difficulties: Speech act theory, the cooperative principle and its four maxims Teaching procedure

An introduction to pragmatics

Today is Sunday.

It can be 1.an answer for ―what day is it today?‖

2. statement 3. complaint 4. reminder

5. criticism (reproach)

6.question ―Today is Sunday?‖

Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义vs 语句意义 Speaker?s meaning 说话者意义 contextual meaning语境意义 Pragmatics 语用学=meaning- senmantics

The study of language in use or the study of meaning of language in context

Pragmatics is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics. It developed in the 1960s and 1970s.

Morris first proposed the word ―pragmatics‖ in his ―Foundations of the Theory of Signs‖. He said that the study of semiotics includes three parts: syntax (sign---sign); semantics (sign---word); pragmatics (sign---its user).

1977 Journal of Pragmatics published in Holland signified the start of pragmatics. 1.what is pragmatics?

Pragmatics can be simply defined as the study of language in use. It is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker or writer and interpreted by a listener or reader. It has, consequently, more to do with the analysi of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves.

Pragmatics is comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s and 1970s resulted from the expansion of the study of linguistics, expecially that of semantics. A general definition of pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. The scope of pragmatic study includes ―speech act theory‖, ―context‖, ―principle of coversation‖ etc.语用学是上个世纪60，70年代兴起的语言学的一个新的分支，它所研究的是语言同其使用者之间的关系，即在一定的交际环境中如何使用语言，包括说出忽然理解实际的话语两个方面。语用学 研究范围包括言语行为，会话含义，会话结构等方面。 2. why must we distinguish using language to do something and using language in doing something? There is a wide variety of possible uses of language, but before we survey these various uses, we must first distinguish between using language to do something and using languag in doing something. When we focus on what people use language to do, we focus on what a person is doing with words in particular situations; we focus on the intentions, purposes, beliefs, and desires that a speaker has is speaking.

3. what does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?

Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional senmantics is that whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. Pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally senmantics studies meaning in isolation from the contexts of use. 4.How is the notion of context interpreted?

Context-----context is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer.