语言学讲解和名词解释

barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It counldn‘t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee‘s system, nonetheless, has a samll share of ―displacement‖, but it‘s an unspeakable tiny share

e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmission

You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.

The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.

This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it ―language acquisition device‖, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular languag a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one lkie the dog‘s barking system. （人类学习语言的能力有遗传基础，但任何详细的语言系统都必须通过教授和学习才能获得，这说明语言具有文化传递性，它不是靠人类的本能而获得的。）

If a human beging is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire langauge. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‘s roaring ―tongue‖ when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language. Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.动物是靠其基因来传递其呼叫系统的。 f. interchangeability 互换性

interchangeablity means that any human beging can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is differatiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barkds, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog /dogs is /are ―speaking‖ and which listening.

What featrues of human langauge have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system?

Arbitrainess----a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of. Duality----a feature totally lacking in any animal communication.

Creativity----animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.

Displacement----no animal can talk about things removed from the immediate situation.

Cultural transmission-----details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communicaiton.

Why do linguists say langauge is human specific?

First of all, huan language has six ―design features‖ which animal communication sysmtens do not have, at least not in the true sense of them.

Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught ―American sign language‖, and learned a little that made the teacehrs happy but did not make the linguists circle happy, for few believed in teaching champanzees.

Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not enen when he is taken back and taught to do so. 1.4 Origin of language 语言的起源

1.5 functions of language 语言的功能

Jakobson difined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee,

context, message, code, contact. 雅科布逊定义了言语行为的六个要素：说话者，受话者，语境，信息，语码，接触。

Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:

Referential funtion-----to convey message and imformation所指功能：传达信息

Poetic funtion -----to indulge in language for its own sake 诗学功能：完全就语言而语言

Emotive funtion ----to express attitudes, feelings and emotions 感情功能：表达态度、感觉和感情 Conative funtion ----to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties 意动功能：通过命令和恳求去说服和影响他人

Phatic funtion ----to establish communion with others 交感功能：与他人建议交流

Metalingual function -----to clear up intentions, words and meanings 元语言功能：弄清意图、词语和意义

They correspond to such communication elements as context ,message, addresser, addressee, contact and code. 它们与一些交流活动的元素相对应，如语境，信息，说话者，受话者，接触和语码等。

Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language , that is, language has:韩礼德提出语言元功能的理论，即语言有：

Ideational function----constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations;概念功能：建构了经验模型和逻辑关系

Interpersonal function-----enacts social relationships 人际功能：反映了社会关系

textual functions----creates relevance to context. 语篇功能：创立了语言与语境的关系

Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development, that is , instrumental, regulatory, represnetational, interactional, personal, heuristic and imaginative.他通过观察儿童语言的发展提出了语言的七种功能，他们是工具功能，控制功能，表达功能，交互功能，自指性功能，教导功能和想象功能。

Function(功能): the use of language to communicate,to think ,etc.Language functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.(用语言交流,思考等.语言功能包括信息功能,人际功能,施为功能,感情功能,交感性功能,娱乐性功能和元语言功能.)

language has at least seven funtions: patic, directive, informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.

Accoriding to Wang Gang (1988), langauge has three main functions: a tool of communications,

a tool whereby people learn about the world; a tool by which people creat art. 1.5.1 Informative function信息功能 What is the informative function?

Langauge serves an “informatvie function” when used to tell something , characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true or false. According to P. Grice?s “cooperative principle”, one ought not to violate the “maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.

Informative function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. 在功能语法的框架中，信息功能也被称为概念功能。

Halliday notes that “langauge serves for the expression of ?content ?”: that is, of the speaker?s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. 韩礼德指出“语言为表达?内容?服务：这个?内容?就是说话者的真实的经验世界，包括他自我意识的内部世界。“ It requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language

suggests to us. 它需要人类的指挥从其他的不同角度看待事物，而不是按照语言提示给我们的那样去做。

1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功能 1.5.3 Performative function 施为功能

This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge?s imprisonment sentence, the president?s war or independence declaration , etc, are perfomatives. 1.5.4 Emotive function 感情功能 1.5.5 Phatic communion 交感性谈话

phatic communion(交感性谈话): one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.(人类语言的功能之一,指语言的社会交互性.)

broadly speaking, phatic funcion refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects.概况地说，交感性功能是指那些有助于说明，维持人际关系的表达，如俚语，玩笑，行业话，礼节性的交际，社会地域方言的转化等等。

The phatic function refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts than for exchanging imformation or ideas. Greetings , farewells and comments on the weather in English and cloting in Chinese all lserve this function. Much of the phatic langauge(eg, ―how are you?‖ ―fine, thanks.‖) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don‘t say ―hello‖ to a friend you meet, or if you don‘t answer his ―hi ‖ , you ruin your friendship. 1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐性功能

What is the evocative function? 什么是娱乐性功能？

The ―evocative function‖ is the use of language to creat certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listerner; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative funtions often go together, i.e. you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issure but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‘s aslo the case with the other way round.

1.5.7 Metalingual function 元语言功能

metalanguage(元语言): certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.用以讲述或描述另一语言等的语言或一套符号。 What is the direct function?

The ―direction function‖ means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this funtion. E.g. ―Tell me the result when you finish.‖ Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle‘s ―Indirect speech act theory‖ at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g, ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!‖

What is the interrogative function?什么是疑问功能？

When language is used to obtain information, it serves an ―interrogative function‖. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc. according to the ―indirect sppech act theory‖, may have this function as well, e.g. ―I‘d like to know you better.‖ This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorial questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader‘s /listerner‘s answer. What is the expressive function?

The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ . sentences like ―I‘m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative funciton to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evoluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‘s

own attitudes.

1.6.What is linguistics

Linguistics is generally a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.

Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general. 语言学是对语言进行科学地研究的学科。它所研究的并不是某种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言的共性。

A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.

observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theory

A linguist , though , does not have to know and use a large number of language, but to investigate

how each languag is constructed. He is also concerned with how a languag varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are consturcted and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.

Explain the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.

Lingusitics investigates not any particular language, but language in general. Linguistic stduy is

scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic language data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the lingusist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually used, formulating some hyphotheses, and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.

What makes linguistics a science?

Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic,

investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principle: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity.

(1)Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an

adequate explaination, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic ―stone‖ unturned.

(2) Consistency means there should be no countradiction between different parts of the total

statement.

(3) Economy means a liguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when is is possible.

(4). Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist shoud be

(or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitues part of the linguistics research.

1.7 Main branches (scope) of linguistics语言学的主要分支

Lingusitics should include at least five branches, namely:phonologic, morphologic, syntactic, senmantic and pragmatic.语言学至少包括五个分支：语音、形态、句法、语义、和语用。

General lingusitics 普通语言学-------the study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods appliable in any linguistic study. 把语言作为一个整体来研究的学科被称为普通语言学，它是语言学研究中探索人类语言的普遍性质和规律的学科。

1.7.1 phonetics 语音学-----studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech , the description and classification of speech sounds , words and connected speech, etc. 研究语音，包括言语的产生（也就是言语在现实中怎样形成，传递和接受），言语的声音，语音的描写和分类，词语和话语