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6：intercultural communication. 跨文化交际
常指来自不同文化的人之间的交际，暗含了文化之间的比较。
第10章language acquisition 本章要点：
儿童语言习得的理论
儿童语言发展中的认知因素 语言环境和临界期假说 儿童语言发展的阶段 非典型发展
language acquisition： refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue.
1. 儿童语言习得的三个理论：
A behaviorist view of language acquisition: 行为主义
定义：Language learning is simply an imitation and habit formation.
Imitation and practice are preliminary, discrimination and generations are key to language development.
意义：reasonable account of how children acquire language. More complex grammatical structures of the language require a different explanation.
An innatist view of language acquisition 语法先天主义者
Noam Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language. 后来定义为 LAD language acquisition device 将这种内在的天赋称之为UG universal grammar.
Main content: 主要观点：
儿童并不能通过试用和错误（试误式学习）发现反身代词的规则，相反，儿童对于这些语法规则的习得是受内在UG指导的。 不同的语言有不同的反身代词的规则，而且通过接触有限的例子，儿童似乎就能“指导”这些规则。
Children can not discover the rules of reflexive pronouns by trail and error. Instead, children’s acquisition of the rules is guided by the innate UG.
Different language has different rules about reflexives. And children seem to be able to “know” the rules by being exposing to a limited number of examples.
An interactionist view of language acquisition 互动主义语言习得观
As a result of the complex interplay between the characteristic of children and the environment which the child develops. Modified language which is suitable for child’s ability is crucial in his language acquisition.
Cognitive factors in children language acquisition 儿童语言发展中的认知因素：
认知因素和语言习得在两种方式上相关：
1，
language development is dependent on both the concept they form about the world and what they feel stimulated to communicate at the early and later stages of language development.
对周围世界形成的概念； 所感到的刺激他们进行交际的事物。
The cognitive factor determines how children make sense of the linguistic system instead of the meaning the children perceive and express. 弄清语言系统；而不是所感受到的表达和意义。
2，
语言环境和临界期假说 考点：名词解释
Language environment and critical period hypothesis 1．Definition： Eric·Lenneberg
LAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—a specific and limited period time for language acquisition, which refers to as the Critical Period Hypothesis CPH Content:
The strong version: acquire their first language by the puberty, or they will never be able to learn from the subsequent exposure.
The weak version: language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.
儿童语言发展的阶段：
Stages in child language development 音位发展
Phonological development
儿童天生就具有区别和发音的能力，对声音习得在所有文化和语言中是共通的。
Child is born with the ability to discriminate and produce sounds, and the acquisition of sounds is universal. 词汇发展
Vocabulary development
The vocabulary development is connected with the child’s environment. 语法发展
Grammatical development
Children increase their ability to carry out “transformation” of the basic sentence structure to produce more complex utterance.
语用发展
Pragmatic development
Children learn how to speak to others in a appropriate manner.
非典型发展 考点：类别 Atypical development
1. hearing impairment 听力受损 2. mental retardation 思维障碍 3. autism 臆想症
4. stuttering 口吃 5. aphasia 失语症
6. dyslexia 失读症 书写困难症
第十一章second language acquisition
考点：
第一语言习得与第二语言习得之间的联系； 错误分析； 中介语； 本族语在第二语言习得中的作用； 二语习得的模式和输入假说；个体差异
第二语言习得定义(二十世纪七十年代确立) SLA: Second Language Acquisition
1. 第一语言习得与第二语言习得之间的联系：
Connection: the first language served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning.
Difference: second language learners generally fail to attain the native-like competence. The language they produce calls interlanguage, which tends to be fossilized and stabilized at a certain level.
2. contrasive analysis 对比分析
Starting with describing comparable features between two languages(such as tense, words expression). Contrastive analysis compares forms and meaning between two languages to spot mismatches and differences.
3. Error analysis: 错误分析gave less consideration to learners’ native language. （1）tells teachers what needs to be taught
（2）tell researcher how the learning proceeds
（3）are means how learners test their hypotheses about language to be learnt.
A: interlingual errors：results from the cross-linguistic interference at different levels, such as phonological, lexical, grammatical.
B: intralingual errors: results from the faulty or partial learning of the target language, which is independent of the native language.
（1）overgeneralization: the use of previously available strategies in new situation. （2）cross-association: some words similar in meaning, spelling, and pronunciation, which leads to confusion, this aspect calls internal interference.
4. interlanguage 中介语
learners’ independent system of the language which is of neither native language
nor second language. It calls continuum or approximation. Features:
(1)systematicity (2)permeability (3)fossilization
5. 本族语在第二语言习得中的作用 1 语言迁徙的定义：language transfer
将本族语的表层形式搬到第二语言的语境中，例如“接触社会” 翻译为：to touch the socity.
2. 决定第二语言习得的语言迁徙中的因素：
a) a learner’s psychology, how a leaner organize his or her native language. b) perception of the native-target language
c) learners’ actual knowledge of the target language.
3. 本族语的影响：
a) influence reflexes at phonological, lexical, semantic, syntactical level. b) reflect underlying principles of languages at cognitive level.
c) avoidance of certain target language structure, different learning rate.
6. 第二语言习得模式和输入假说
1.模式：to what extent second language acquisition is a function of innateness. 在很大程度上， 第二语言习得是一个内在功能。
2. 克拉申输入假说：Krashen’s input hypotheses
There are two independent means of second language. Learning and acquisition.
Acquisition: it is a subconscious process of without learning of grammatical rules. Learning: conscious learning of the second language knowledge by learning the rules.
According to “i+1”hypothesis(input hypothesis), the current level of learner?s language competence is ?i”, the language input provided by the teacher should be ?i+1”. Thus student?s current level is the basis on which teacher decides what language data and material to provide.
3. 第二语言习得的动机 motivation：
a) instrumental motivation: 工具性动机： 为了passing the exams, financial rewards. b) integrative motivation: 综合性动机： c) resultative motivation: 外部目的 external
d) intrisinc motivation: 内部动机： 为了enjoyment and pleasure
动机的特点：
所有动机都能促进学习，动机时消时涨。学习的进步反过来促进语言学习动机。
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