新编简明英语语言学教程-戴炜栋6-12章复习资料

1.Major sense relations

(1)Synonymy:同义关系 refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. ①Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects. Eg. British English: autumn. American English: fall. ②Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style. Eg. Start, begin, commence ③Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning. Eg. The two words collaborator and accomplice are synonymous inthat they share the meaning of “a person who helps another”, but they differ in that a collaborator helps another in doing something good, while an accomplice helps another ina criminal act. ④Semantically different synonyms. Eg. The two words amaze and astound are very close in meaning to the word surprise, but have very subtle differences. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, astound suggests difficulty in believing. ⑤Collocational synonyms. Eg. charge…. With, rebuke….for, sour milk

(2).Polysemy:多义现象It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. Eg. If we look up he word “table” in any dictionary, we will find the following meanings: 1)a piece of furniture, 2)all the people seated at table, 3)the food that is put on the table, 4)a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc, and so on

(3).Homonymy同音异义refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. 1)Homophones同音异义—when two words are identical in sound. Eg. Meet/meat; son/sun; night/knight; Homonymy Homographs同形异义—when two words are identical in spelling. Eg. minute n/minute adj; tear v./ tear n ; lead v./lead n. Complete homonyms—when two words are identical in both spelling and sound. Eg. Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.

(4).Hyponymy下义关系It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate上义词, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms下义词. Eg. Superordinate: animal, hyponyms: dog, cat, tiger, lion, fox, bear.

(5)Antonymy 反义关系It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning. ①Gradable antonyms分级反义词(a matter of degree). Eg.Old—middle-aged—young; hot-warm-cold .

② Complementary antonyms互补反义词(the denial of one member of pair implies the assertion of the other) . Eg. Alive—dead; male—female; ③Relational opposites关系反义词(Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites)Eg. father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below; north-south

2.Semantics：can be defined as the study of meaning.

3.The naming theory--Plato. words are just names or labels for things. Limitation: 1.this theory seems applicable to nouns only. 2.within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all.

4.The conceptualist view: there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind../ semantic triangle语义三角, triangle of significance意义三角

5.Contextualism：J.R.Firth. It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts./ the situational and the linguistic context. 6.Behaviorism: Bloomfield. It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.

7.Sense: It’s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It’s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized. (It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compiliers are interested)

8.Reference: It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. A certain sense can be realized by more than one references, a certain reference can be expressed by more than one sense. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.

9.sense relation between sentences句子间的意义关系X is synonymous with Y. (同义), X is inconsistent with Y.(不一致)， X entails Y.(X包含于Y中), X presupposes Y. (Y是X的先决条件)，X is a contradiction.(自我矛盾) , X is semantically anomalous. (语义反常)

10.Componential analysis(CA) 成分分析—a way to analyze lexical meaning. It is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based

upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called Semantic features.

Plus and minimums signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent, these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. Eg. Boy=[+HUMAN] [-ADULT] [+MALE] man=[+HUMAN] [+ADULT] [+MALE]

11.Predication Analysis 述谓结构分析—a way to analyze sentence meaning, 由British Linguist G.Leech提出Predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence, it applies to all forms of a sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative. (the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components.)1)grammatical 2)semantic meaning.

Predication consists of Arguments变元and Predicates谓词. An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence, a predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. one-place predication eg, “Tom smokes” argument:”TOM” predicate: “SMOKE”, the predition: TOM(SMOKE), two-place predication) eg, “Kids like apples” KID,APPLE(LIKE), no-place predication eg, “It is hot”(BET HOT).

12.Pragmatics: 语用学Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

13.Pragmatics VS Semantics: distinguish→context, The publication of Saussure’s work Course of General Linguistics in the early 20th century marked the beginning of modern linguistics.

14.Context: it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.

15.Sentence meaning and Utterance meaning: If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a seli-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are regarding it as a sentence./ If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are taking it to be an utterance. 区别：the meaning of sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, an utterance is concrete, contextualized. 联系：The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

Eg. Now take the sentence “The room is messy” as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication ROOM(BE MESSY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance will revel what the speaker intend to do with it. For example, it could have been uttered by a mother and her son, when a mother entered into her son’s room, and found his room was in disorder. Thus she said to her son:”The room is messy.” She in fact was blaming him for laziness and asked him to clean it. 16.Speech act theory言语行为理论:

(1)首先John Austin. It’s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it’s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?” Austin’s model: Constatives叙事话语：were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable. performatives行事话语:did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable 然后又建立了三种行为理论：locutionary act言内行为→句子词组的表面意义, illocutionary act言外行为→暗含义, perlocutionary act言后行为→执行的动作，以you have left the door wide open为例. Locutionary act:: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean. illocutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door. Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed.语言学家对言外行为illocutionary act最感兴趣

(2).美国哲学语言学家John Searle对言外行为分成了5类1)阐述性Representatives---stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性, 2)指令性Directives---trying to get

the

hearer

to

do

something

例

词

:inviting,

suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 3)承诺性Commissives--- future例词:promising, undertaking, vowing 4)表达类Expressives---the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating 5)宣告类Declarations---the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 例句I now declare the meeting open/I appoint you chairman of the committee/I fire you. 这五类differ in their strength or force.

17.Principle of conversation会话原则→Cooperative Principle合作原则: In Grice’s view,