纽马克的翻译理论

deceived)\missed by Nida must be added: \director thought they had merely pretended to travel, in order to deceive others.\名词化的动名词 may be active or passive消极的，被动的；冷淡的，不主动的 in meaning.)

It is not usually necessary to make a full cognitive translation, a procedure similar to Brislin's (1976) \消解中心化\Where the cultures of two languages have been in contact for centuries, the translator normally resorts to cognitive translation only for obscure, ambiguous or complex passages. A cognitive translation may serve as a tertium comparationis between texts with distant cultures and radically different language structures. Where cognitive translation results in a poorly written and/or repetitive text, communicative translation requires a bold attempt to clarify and reorganize it. A text such as the following would require considerable rewriting before it is translated: \Government make it possible for those who want to get into Europe without the sacrifice to British sovereignty...which must be the inevitable result of our joining if we are to rely on M. Debre's words recently that the Common Market is unworkable

without the Treaty of Rome. Proposed rewrite:

\make it possible for Britain to get into Europe without sacrificing her sovereignty? According to M. Debre's recent statement, this would first require amendments to the treaty of Rome, which is the legal instrument法律文书 governing the Common Market共同市场.\

I am assuming that whilst a semantic translation is always inferior to it original, since it involves loss of meaning, a communicative translation may be better, since it may gain in force有效，生效，实施中；大批，大量 and clarity清楚，明晰 what it loses in semantic content. In communicative translation the translator is trying in his own language to write a little better than the original, unless he is reproducing the well-established formulae配方；公式；套话，固定的说法，惯用语句 of notices or correspondence. I assume that in communicative translation one has the right to correct or improve the logic; to replace clumsy with elegant, or at least functional, syntactic structures; to remove obscurities; to eliminate消除，清除，根除；淘汰 repetition重复，反复 and tautology重复，赘述; to exclude把某人排除在外，把某物排

斥在外；防止进入/参加；不包括 the less likely interpretations of an ambiguity; to modify and clarify jargon术语，行话(i.e. Reduce loose 属的，类的；一般的，总称的generic terms通用条款/词组/术语/说法 to rather more concrete components), and to normalize使标准/正常/常态化 怪诞，古怪，怪异bizarreries of idiolect个人言语特点，个人习语, i.e. wayward任性的，倔强的，刚愎的；反复无常的 uses of language. Further, one has the right to correct mistakes of fact and 滑倒，失足；小错误，小疏忽slips, normally stating what one has done in a footnote注脚，注释. (All such corrections and

improvements are usually inadmissible不允许的，不许可的；不可接受的；不能承认的 in semantic translation.)

In theory a communicative translation is ipso facto a subjective procedure, since it is intended primarily to achieve a certain effect on its readers' minds, which effect could only be verified证实，核对，证明 by a survey of their mental and/or physical reactions. In fact, it is initially as constrained by the form, the structures and words of the original as a semantic translation (the pre-translation process) until the version is gradually skewed偏的，歪斜的；歪曲的，曲解的 to the reader's point of view.（逐渐朝着读者的观点倾斜）Then the translator starts to ask himself whether his version is \

\Austin, 1962). He begins to extend the unit of translation, having secured the referential basis参照依据, i.e. the truth of the information; he views words and phrases in expanding waves in their linguistic context语言语境, restructuring and rearranging clauses, reinforcing emphases. Nevertheless, each lexical and grammatical unit has to remain 看作，视为accounted for---that is his Antaean link with the text.

In one sense（=in a sense从某种意义上说）, communicative translation, by adapting and making the thought and cultural content of the original more accessible to the reader, gives semantic translation another dimension任何一种量度；面积，体积，程度，范围. The Leipzig School, notably Neubert and Kade, have referred to（谈到，提到；查阅；涉及，关于，有关；提交给……处理 this as the \实际的，务实的；实用主义的\易引起误解的，易使人产生错觉的. To begin with, peirce and notably显著地，明显地；著名地；尤其，特别 Morris defined \语用学，语言实用学\符号学 that deals with the relation between signs or linguistic expressions and their users (传播/输者；传送/达者）(transmitters and receptors). Communicative translation, however, is